Categories of Instructional Software

Tutorials

Quality tutorials should present information and guide learning. You are probably familiar with the word tutorial from other contexts. What do you understand the term "tutorial" to mean when not used in reference to a computer activity? Perhaps you have had the opportunity to tutor a younger or less-experienced student. How are tutorials, computer-based or traditional, different from group-based instruction? The fact that computer-based tutorials cannot measure up to human tutorials should not be a great concern. Tutorial experiences are limited for most students in group-based instruction and computer tutorials offer some benefits. In addition, the use of computer tutorials should not reduce student involvement with the students. 

Simulations

A simulation provides a controlled learning environment that attempts to replicate key elements of the real world. Simulations allow the learner to act and then provides appropriate outcomes or consequences. Simulations are among the most flexible types of instructional software and can be used in all four phases of instruction. This does not mean that a particular simulation will provide the complete instructional experience in a given area and simulations are usually combined with other experiences. The book discusses using a simulation before and after more traditional instruction. What do you think a simulation is to accomplish when used before traditional instruction? What does a simulation accomplish when used after traditional instruction? Perhaps you have experienced simulations that did not involve technology. Discuss your experiences and reflect on what the simulation was to accomplish.

Attributions of Simulations, Learning, and Transfer

The extent to which a simulation mimics reality is called fidelity. Contrary to common sense, perfect fidelity is not always desirable. Perfect fidelity can be confusing. The book claims that experienced teachers already realize this and make adjustments in what they present. If you understand this claim, you should be able to describe examples. Transfer imposes different demands and the capacity to transfer learning is improved by providing experiences high in fidelity. Understanding that learning and learning for transfer are different processes may be enlightening for students. A discussion of simulations is a good time to deal with this distinction. Students often profit from working at several levels of fidelity so this is another example of not getting locked in to one way of doing something.

Advantages of Simulations.

The advantages of simulations include; a) concreteness, b) control, c) cost effectiveness, and d) safety. 

Drill and Practice

Drill concerns factual memorization and practice concerns the development of skill fluency. This type of software provides for the third stage of instruction: extended practice. Drill and Practice activities are useful, but teachers need to understand that software designed for extended practice has a narrow focus and does not meet the needs of other areas of instruction. Drill software has been criticized because of the emphasis placed on rote memorization. You might want to consider whether heavy use of drill software reflects a unique problem or if memorization is actually a general emphasis in all forms of instruction.

Educational Games

Instructional activities are categorized as games when they emphasize competition and entertainment. Games frequently employ fantasy, action, and uncertainty to keep players interested. Games can provide a way to pique interest in an area of study or as a way to reward students for their hard work. When used as rewards, teachers must be careful that all students have a reasonable opportunity to play the games. You might want to think through your own opinion on the use of games in the classroom. Are their circumstances when games are appropriate? When do games convey the wrong impression? 

Exploratory Environments

Exploratory environments offer students elements to work with a setting in which the manipulation of these elements allows a body of information or a rule system to be investigated. Exploratory-environments are typically student-centered. These environments differ in whether or not they offer a task, goal, or problem to be solved. When the environment offers little direction, some students have difficulty using the environment productively. The attic environment described in the book could be used to discuss why students need a purpose to benefit from an exploratory environment. Teachers can probably appreciate how a great deal of historical information could be embedded within a virtual attic and yet without goals young students would just wander about with little purpose. What kind of goals or tasks might students be given to help them become active learners?

Hypermedia videodisc environments can be classified as exploratory environments when they allow students to explore rich stores of information. If available, an example from The Adventures of Jasper Woodbury series makes a good class demonstration.

Bisection Problem - Geometer's Sketchpad - Example of an Exploratory Environment

Do you remember the geometry problem of bisecting an angle using only a compass and a straight edge, and then determining if the figure you constructed was correct using a protractor? This particular problem-solving task requires developing a procedure to draw a line that exactly halves any angle (bisecting a 90-degree angle results in two 45 degree angles). The protractor is used only to check the answer and cannot be used to determine where the line should be drawn.

The sketch in began with three points (A, B, and C) connected with two segments. The point tool (second tool down) was used to add the points to the work space, and the segment tool (fourth tool down) was used to connect the points. The points were then moved around with the selection tool (the first tool) to create a right angle. Actually, the sketchpad has a built-in procedure allowing any angle to be measured. The result of the measurement is printed to the screen (see the data for angle BAC in the upper left-hand corner of the work space). The next step in bisecting angle BAC is to draw a circle centered at the vertex of the angle; any size circle that intersects the sides of the angle will do. You may remember performing this same step with the compass. The compass was set for a fixed distance. The sharp pin was stuck into the vertex, and you then marked the arms of the angle with a short arc. With The Geometer's Sketchpad, the circle tool is selected using the mouse, the tool is moved into the work space, clicked at the vertex of the angle (point A), and then moved away from point A until a circle of the desired size is created. This circle appears in the Figure as circle 1.

The next steps in the computer version of the bisection problem are a little tricky. To solve the bisection problem, you need to construct two identical circles and center one at the exact points where the first circle crosses the arms of the angle. Finally, a line segment is drawn between the intersection of circles 2 and 3 and point A. In theory, this line should bisect angle BAC. To check the accuracy of the bisection, angle HAC is measured using the same procedure originally used to measure angle BAC. As you can see, angle HAC is 45 degrees, or exactly half of angle BAC.

Screen Display of Angle Bisection with Geometer's Sketchpad

We hope that you were able to follow this example. Don't worry too much about understanding the solution strategy. It is more important that you have some understanding of the general nature of exploratory environments and, in this case, that you understand what students might be doing as they work in this type of environment.

New versions of Geometer's Sketchpad allow online manipulation.

Return to Chapter 4